Indigenous peoples of the Americas

The term indigenous peoples of the Americas encompasses the inhabitants of the Americas before the arrival of the European explorers in the 15th century, as well as many present-day ethnic groups who identify themselves with those historical peoples. (The precise definition of the term is the topic of the Native American name controversy.) According to current scientific knowledge, most (if not all) of those indigenous peoples descend from peoples from Siberia, who probably entered North America more than 16,000 years ago and spread and diversified into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. While many of these indigenous peoples retained a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle until modern times, others lived in permanent villages and were primarily farmers, and in some regions they created large sedentary chiefdom polities, and even advanced state level societies with monumental architecture and large-scale, organized cities. Based on anthropological, genetic, and linguistic evidence, scholars generally agree that most indigenous peoples of the Americas descend from people who probably migrated from Siberia across the Bering Strait, prior to 16,000 years ago. The exact epoch and route is still a matter of debates. Until recently the majority of anthropologists believed that one wave of migrants crossed the strait 12,000 years ago via the Bering Land Bridge which existed during the last ice age (which occurred 26,000 to 11,000 years ago), and that they followed an inland route through Alaska and Canada that had just been freed of its ice cover. There is growing evidence of human presence in Brazil (Pedra Pintada), Chile (Monte Verde) and Argentina (Piedra Museo) 11,500 years ago or earlier . Other possibilities, not necessarily exclusive, have been suggested:

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The migrants may have crossed the land bridge several millennia earlier and followed a coastal route, thus avoiding the ice-covered interior.
They may have been seafaring people who moved along the coast, supported strongly with anecdotal evidence of sea migration to Australia at least 60,000 years ago over only 250 kilometers of open ocean at that time period.
The crossing of the Bering Land Bridge may have occurred during the previous ice age, around 37,000 years ago. This is also supported by the archaeology dating of some sites in South America prior to the previously assumed date of 12–14,000 years ago.
There were several waves of migrations. While the timing and means by which the First Americans arrived in the Americas is still hotly debated, recent archaeological conferences and an overwhelming plethora of radiocarbon dates from sites at Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania and Monte Verde in Chile, among others, have solidified a paradigm shift that appears to be growing toward a consensus that human beings occupied both North and South America, from the Pacific to the Atlantic, at least 1,000 years before the date previously posited by proponents of the Clovis First theory, and perhaps much earlier.

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One must also remember that the earliest Americans would have used many materials other than stone, including plant fibers and animal hides and tendons, all of which disintegrate under most ecological conditions. Thus stone materials, though not the most common of ancient peoples' tools, have lasted to the present in much greater numbers and have perhaps skewed theory with a stone bias. This adds greater significance to Dillehay's discovery and dating of organic cords tied in knots around tent stakes that date to a pre-Clovis era.

A more recent and controversial theory is that the first peoples to arrive in the Americas were from what corresponds today to south-western France. The theory originated when artifacts showing apparent similarities to those of the Solutrean culture (that inhabited pre-historic south-west France) were discovered by archaeologists digging below the 'Clovis level'. (The Clovis level being the level at which a flint spearhead was found in New Mexico, thought to belong to 'Clovis Man', the people who moved into North America via the Bering Strait glaciated bridge.) The carbon dating indicated that the items have been crafted about 17,000 years ago. By recognizing that the northern Atlantic Ocean itself was also covered by ice roughly 18,000 years ago, archaeologists have theorized that the Solutrean people could have crossed the glaciated Atlantic at that time.

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According to Mitochondrial DNA analysis, 15% to 25% of indigenous peoples from north-eastern America exhibit a particular DNA mutation (dating back at least 15,000 years ago) that is much more commonly encountered among Western Europeans than among population of Asia. Some experts believe this implies that some of the indigenous peoples ancestors migrated from accross the Atlantic Ocean (BBC 2002) while it is not accepted as a sufficient evidence by others. A more radical theory holds that a population of Pre-Siberian American Aborigines already occupied the Americas before the Siberian migrations. These earlier inhabitants could be migrants from Oceania, who arrived either by sailing across the Pacific Ocean or by following the land route through Beringia at a much earlier date. Proponents of this theory claim that the oldest human remains in South America and in Baja California show distinctive non-Siberian traits, resembling those of Australian Aborigines or the so-called "negrito" peoples of South and Southeast Asia, such as the Andamanese of the Andaman Islands. These hypothetical Pre-Siberian aborigines would have been displaced by the Siberian migrants, and may have been ancestral to the distinctive Pericu indians of Baja California, and of the Fuegians, the indigenous peoples of the Tierra del Fuego.

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Basing any theory on supposed similarities in human physiology thought to be recognized in the "features" of ancient remains, however, ignores the physical variety among members of any single group and is generally doubted by scientists and scholars. Further, many have argued that such theorizing can be construed as inherently racist and fraught with unscientific notions of population phenotypes and their underlying genetics.

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Languages of the Americas

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Archaeology of the Americas

Population history of American indigenous peoples